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Bundle of fiberglass

Fiberglass, (also called fibreglass and glass fibre), is material made from extremely fine fibers of glass. It is used as a reinforcing agent for many polymer products; the resulting composite material, properly known as fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) or glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), is called "fiberglass" in popular usage. Glassmakers throughout history have experimented with glass fibers, but mass manufacture of fiberglass was only made possible with the invention of finer machine tooling. In 1893, Edward Drummond Libbey exhibited a dress at the World's Columbian Exposition incorporating glass fibers with the diameter and texture of silk fibers. This was first worn by the popular stage actress of the time Georgia Cayvan.

What is commonly known as "fiberglass" today, however, was invented in 1938 by Russell Games Slayter of Owens-Corning as a material to be used as insulation. It is marketed under the trade name Fiberglas, which has become a genericized trademark. A somewhat similar, but more expensive technology used for applications requiring very high strength and low weight is the use of carbon fiber.

[edit] Formation

Glass fiber is formed when thin strands of silica-based or other formulation glass is extruded into many fibers with small diameters suitable for textile processing. Glass, even as a fiber, has little crystalline structure (see amorphous solid). The properties of the structure of glass in its softened stage are very much like its properties when spun into fiber. One definition of glass is "an inorganic substance in a condition which is continuous with, and analogous to the liquid state of that substance, but which, as a result of a reversible change in viscosity during cooling, has attained so high a degree of viscosity as to be, for all practical purposes, rigid."^[1]

The technique of heating and drawing glass into fine fibers has been known for millennia; however, the use of these fibers for textile applications is more recent. The first commercial production of fiberglass was in 1936. In 1938, Owens-Illinois Glass Company and Corning Glass Works joined to form the Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corporation. Until this time all fiberglass had been manufactured as staple. When the two companies joined to produce and promote fiberglass, they introduced continuous filament glass fibers.^[1] Owens-Corning is still the major fiberglass producer in the market today. Two types of fiberglass most commonly used are S-glass and E-glass. E-glass has good insulation properties and it will maintain its properties up to 1500 degree F(815 deg C). S-glass has a high tensile strength and is stiffer than E-glass.

[edit] Chemistry

The basis of textile-grade glass fibers is silica, SiO₂. In its pure form it exists as a polymer, (SiO₂)_n. It has no true melting point but softens at 2000°C, where it starts to degrade. At 1713°C, most of the molecules can move about freely. If the glass is then cooled quickly, they will be unable to form an ordered structure.^[2] In the polymer, it forms SiO₄ groups which are configured as a tetrahedron with the silicon atom at the center and four oxygen atoms at the corners. These atoms then form a network bonded at the corners by sharing the oxygen atoms.

The vitreous and crystalline states of silica (glass and quartz) have similar energy levels on a molecular basis, also implying that the glassy form is extremely stable. In order to induce crystallization, it must be heated to temperatures above 1200°C for long periods of time.^[1]

Molecular Structure of Glass

Although pure silica is a perfectly viable glass and glass fiber, it must be worked with at very high temperatures, which is a drawback unless its specific chemical properties are needed. It is usual to introduce impurities into the glass in the form of other materials to lower its working temperature. These materials also impart various other properties to the glass which may be beneficial in different applications. The first type of glass used for fiber was soda lime glass or A glass. It was not very resistant to alkali. A new type, E-glass was formed that is alkali free (< 2%) and is an alumino-borosilicate glass.^[3] This was the first glass formulation used for continuous filament formation. E-glass still makes up most of the fiberglass production in the world. Its particular components may differ slightly in percentage, but must fall within a specific range. The letter E is used because it was originally for electrical applications. S-glass is a high-strength formulation for use when tensile strength is the most important property. C-glass was developed to resist attack from chemicals, mostly acids which destroy E-glass.^[3] T-glass is a North American variant of C-glass. A-glass is an industry term for cullet glass, often bottles, made into fiber. AR-glass is alkali-resistant glass. Most glass fibers have limited solubility in water but are very dependent on pH. Chloride ions will also attack and dissolve E-glass surfaces. A recent trend in the industry is to reduce or eliminate the boron content in the glass fibers.

Since E-glass does not really melt, but soften, the softening point is defined as "the temperature at which a 0.55 – 0.77 mm diameter fiber 235 mm long, elongates under its own weight at 1 mm/min when suspended vertically and heated at the rate of 5°C per minute".^[4] The strain point is reached when the glass has a viscosity of 10^14.5 poise. The annealing point, which is the temperature where the internal stresses are reduced to an acceptable commercial limit in 15 minutes, is marked by a viscosity of 10¹³ poise.^[4]

[edit] Properties

Glass fibers are useful because of their high ratio of surface area to weight. However, the increased surface area makes them much more susceptible to chemical attack.

By trapping air within them, blocks of glass fiber make good thermal insulation, with a thermal conductivity on the order of 0.05 W/(mK).^[5]

Glass strengths are usually tested and reported for "virgin" fibers: those which have just been manufactured. The freshest, thinnest fibers are the strongest because the thinner fibers are more ductile. The more the surface is scratched, the less the resulting tenacity.^[3] Because glass has an amorphous structure, its properties are the same along the fiber and across the fiber.^[2] Humidity is an important factor in the tensile strength. Moisture is easily adsorbed, and can worsen microscopic cracks and surface defects, and lessen tenacity.

In contrast to carbon fiber, glass can undergo more elongation before it breaks.^[2] There is a correlation between bending diameter of the filament and the filament diameter.^[6] The viscosity of the molten glass is very important for manufacturing success. During drawing (pulling of the glass to reduce fiber circumference), the viscosity should be relatively low. If it is too high, the fiber will break during drawing. However, if it is too low, the glass will form droplets rather than drawing out into fiber.

[edit] Manufacturing processes

[edit] Melting

There are two main types of glass fiber manufacture and two main types of glass fiber product. First, fiber is made either from a direct melt process or a marble remelt process. Both start with the raw materials in solid form. The materials are mixed and melted in a furnace. Then, for the marble process, the molten material is sheared and rolled into marbles which are cooled and packaged. The marbles are taken to the fiber manufacturing facility where they are inserted into a can and remelted. The molten glass is extruded to the bushing to be formed into fiber. In the direct melt process, the molten glass in the furnace goes right to the bushing for formation.^[4]

[edit] Formation

The bushing plate is the most important part of the machinery. This is a small, metal furnace containing nozzles for the fiber to be formed through. It is almost always made of platinum alloyed with rhodium for durability. Platinum is used because the glass melt has a natural affinity for wetting it. When bushings were first used they were 100% platinum and the glass wetted the bushing so easily it ran under the plate after exiting the nozzle and accumulated on the underside. Also, due to its cost and the tendency to wear, the platinum was alloyed with rhodium. In the direct melt process, the bushing serves as a collector for the molten glass. It is heated slightly to keep the glass at the correct temperature for fiber formation. In the marble melt process, the bushing acts more like a furnace as it melts more of the material.^{[1]p. 91}

The bushings are what make the capital investment in fiberglass production expensive. The nozzle design is also critical. The number of nozzles ranges from 200 to 4000 in multiples of 200. The important part of the nozzle in continuous filament manufacture is the thickness of its walls in the exit region. It was found that inserting a counterbore here reduced wetting. Today, the nozzles are designed to have a minimum thickness at the exit. The reason for this is that as glass flows through the nozzle it forms a drop which is suspended from the end. As it falls, it leaves a thread attached by the meniscus to the nozzle as long as the viscosity is in the correct range for fiber formation. The smaller the annular ring of the nozzle or the thinner the wall at exit, the faster the drop will form and fall, and the lower its tendency to wet the vertical part of the nozzle.^{[1]p. 94} The surface tension of the glass is what influences the formation of the meniscus. For E-glass it should be around 400 mN per m.^[3]

The attenuation (drawing) speed is important in the nozzle design. Although slowing this speed can make coarser fiber, it is not economical to run at speeds for which the nozzles were not designed.^[1]

[edit] Continuous filament process

In the continuous filament process, after the fiber is drawn, a size is applied. This size helps protect the fiber as it is wound onto a bobbin. The particular size applied relates to its use. While some sizes are processing aids, others cause the fiber to have an affinity for a certain resin, if the fiber is to be used in a composite.^[4] Size is usually added at 0.5–2.0% by weight. Winding then takes place at around 1000 m per min.^[2]

[edit] Staple fiber process

In staple fiber production, there are a number of ways to manufacture the fiber. The glass can be blown or blasted with heat or steam after exiting the formation machine. Usually these fibers are made into some sort of mat. The most common process used is the rotary process. Here, the glass enters a rotating spinner, and due to centrifugal force, is thrown out horizontally. The air jets push it down vertically and binder is applied. Then the mat is vacuumed to a screen and the binder is cured in the oven.^[7]

[edit] Glass-reinforced plastic

Main article: Glass-reinforced plastic

Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) is a composite material or fiber-reinforced plastic made of a plastic reinforced by fine glass fibers. Like graphite-reinforced plastic, the composite material is commonly referred to by the name of its reinforcing fibers (fiberglass). Chemosetting plastics are normally used for GRP production—most often polyester (using butanone as a catalyst), but vinylester or epoxy are also used. The glass can be in the form of a chopped strand mat (CSM) or a woven fabric.

As with many other composite materials (such as reinforced concrete), the two materials act together, each overcoming the deficits of the other. Whereas the plastic resins are strong in compressive loading and relatively weak in tensile strength, the glass fibers are very strong in tension but have no strength against compression. By combining the two materials, GRP becomes a material that resists both compressive and tensile forces well. The two materials may be used uniformly or the glass may be specifically placed in those portions of the structure that will experience tensile loads.

[edit] Uses

Uses for regular fiberglass include mats, thermal insulation, electrical insulation, reinforcement of various materials, sound absorption, heat- and corrosion-resistant fabrics, high-strength fabrics, bows and crossbows, translucent roofing panels, automobile bodies, electrical insulation and boat hulls.

[edit] See also

Look up fiberglass in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Glass wool
• Basalt fiber
• Carbon fiber
• Fiberglass molding
• Glass microsphere
• Optical fiber
• Building insulation
• Gelcoat

[edit] Notes and references

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Loewenstein, K.L. (1973). The Manufacturing Technology of Continuous Glass Fibers. New York: Elsevier Scientific. pp. 2–94. ISBN 0-444-41109-7. 
2. ^ ^{a b c d} Gupta, V.B.; V.K. Kothari (1997). Manufactured Fibre Technology. London: Chapman and Hall. pp. 544–546. ISBN 0-412-54030-4. 
3. ^ ^{a b c d} Volf, Milos B. (1990). Technical Approach to Glass. New York: Elsevier. ISBN 0-444-98805-X. 
4. ^ ^{a b c d} Lubin, George (Ed.) (1975). Handbook of Fiberglass and Advanced Plastic Composites. Huntingdon NY: Robert E. Krieger. 
5. ^ Frank P. Incropera; David P. De Witt (1990). Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer (3rd Ed. ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. A11. ISBN 0-471-51729-1. 
6. ^ KH Hillermeier, Melliand Textilberichte 1/1969, Dortmund-Mengede, page 26-28, Glass fiber — its properties related to the filament fiber diameter.
7. ^ Mohr, J.G.; W.P. Rowe (1978). Fiberglass. Atlanta: Van Nostrand Reindhold. pp. 13. ISBN 0-442-25447-4. 

Fiberglass wikipedia ^[1]

[edit] External links

• Fiberglass wiki
• Fiberglass and health
• UC Davis PDF on Fiberglass Health Effects
• Fiberglass Wall Reinforcement Mesh
• International Geosynthetics Society, information on geotextiles and geosynthetics in general.