Flexible-fuel vehicle
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A flexible-fuel vehicle (FFV) or dual-fuel vehicle (colloquially called a flex-fuel vehicle) is an alternative fuel vehicle with a internal combustion engine designed to run on more than one fuel, usually gasoline blended with either ethanol or methanol fuel, and both fuels are stored in the same common tank, unless the methanol that is stored in an separated tank. Flex-fuel engines are capable of burning any proportion of the resulting blend in the combustion chamber as fuel injection and spark timing are adjusted automatically according to the actual blend detected by electronic sensors.In Brazil, we have the system running without any sensor and all calculation of the mix content in the tank is based on the Oxygen Sensor (O2 Sensor). Flex-fuel vehicles are distinguished from bi-fuel vehicles, where two fuels are stored in separate tanks and the engine runs on one fuel at a time.
The most common commercially available FFV in the market is the ethanol flexible-fuel vehicle, with more than 14 million automobiles and light duty trucks on the roads around the world by mid-2008, and concentrated in four markets,[1] the United States (7.3 million),[2] Brazil (6.2 million),[3][4] Canada (600,000),[5] and Europe, led by Sweden (126,500).[6] In addition to flex-fuel vehicles running with ethanol, in Europe and the US, mainly in California, there have been successful test programs with methanol flex-fuel vehicles, known as M85 flex-fuel vehicles.[1][7] There have been also successful tests using P-series fuels with E85 flex fuel vehicles, but as of June 2008, this fuel is not yet available to the general public.[8][9] These successful tests with P-series fuels were conducted on Ford Taurus and Dodge Caravan flexible-fuel vehicles.[10]
Though technology exists to allow ethanol FFVs to run on any mixture of gasoline and ethanol, from pure gasoline up to 100% ethanol (E100),[11][12] North American and European flex-fuel vehicles are optimized to run on a maximum blend of 15% gasoline with 85% anhydrous ethanol (called E85 fuel). This limit in the ethanol content is set to reduce ethanol emissions at low temperatures and to avoid cold starting problems during cold weather, at temperatures lower than 11 °C (52 °F).[13] The alcohol content is reduced during the winter in regions where temperatures fall below 0 °C (32 °F)[14] to a winter blend of E70 in the U.S.[15][16] or to E75 in Sweden[17] from November until March.[18] Brazilian flex fuel vehicles are optimized to run on any mix of E20-E25 gasoline and up to 100% hydrous ethanol fuel (E100). The Brazilian flex vehicles are built-in with a small gasoline reservoir for cold starting the engine when temperatures drop below 15 °C (59 °F).[19] An improved flex motor generation that will be launched in 2009 is designed to eliminate the need for the secondary gas tank.[20][21]
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[edit] Terminology
As ethanol FFVs became commercially available during the late 1990s, the common use of the term "flexible-fuel vehicle" became synonymous with ethanol FFVs.[11][22][23][24][25] In the United States flex-fuel vehicles are also known as "E85 vehicles". In Brazil, the FFVs are popularly known as "total flex" or simply "flex" cars. In Europe, FFVs are also known as "flexifuel" vehicles. Automakers, particularly in Brazil and the European market, use badging in their FFV models with the some variant of the word "flex", such as Volvo Flexifuel, or Volkswagen Total Flex, or Chevrolet FlexPower or Renault Hi-Flex, and Ford sells its Focus model in Europe as Flexifuel and as Flex in Brazil. In the US, only newer FFV models feature a yellow gas cap with the label "E85/Gasoline" written on the top of the cap to differentiate E85s from gasoline only models,[26][27] and just recently, GM introduced badging with the text "Flexfuel/E85 Ethanol".[28][29]
Flexible-fuel vehicles (FFVs) are based on dual-fuel systems that supply both fuels into the combustion chamber at the same time in various calibrated proportions. The most common fuels used by FFVs today are unleaded gasoline and ethanol fuel. Ethanol FFVs can run on pure gasoline, pure ethanol (E100) or any combination of both.[23][24][30] Methanol has also been blended with gasoline in flex-fuel vehicles known as M85 FFVs, but their use has been limited mainly to demonstration projects and small government fleets, particularly in California.[7]
- Bi-fuel vehicles. The term flexible-fuel vehicles is sometimes used to include other alternative fuel vehicles that can run with natural gas (CNG), LPG, or hydrogen.[31] However, all these vehicles actually are bi-fuel vehicles, because they have engines that store the other fuel in a separate tank, and the engine runs on one fuel at a time. Bi-fuel vehicles have the capability to switch back and forth from gasoline to the other fuel, manually or automatically.[23][24][32] The most common available fuel in the market for bi-fuel cars is natural gas (CNG),[33] and by 2008 there are over 7 million natural gas vehicles in the roads around the world,[34] led by Argentina, Brazil, and Pakistan.[35] South America is the world's leading region with a global market share of 48%.[36] Natural gas vehicles are a popular choice as taxicabs in the main cities of Argentina and Brazil. Normally, standard gasoline vehicles are retrofitted in specialized shops, which involve installing the gas cylinder in the trunk and the CNG injection system and electronics.
- Multifuel vehicles are capable of operating with more than two fuels. In 2004 GM do Brasil introduced the Chevrolet Astra 2.0 with a "MultiPower" engine built on flex fuel technology developed by Bosch of Brazil, and capable of using CNG, ethanol and gasoline (E20-E25 blend) as fuel. This automobile was aimed at the taxicab market and the switch among fuels is done manually.[37][38][39] In 2006 Fiat introduced the Fiat Siena Tetra fuel, a four-fuel car developed under Magneti Marelli of Fiat Brazil.[40][41] This automobile can run as a flex-fuel on 100% ethanol (E100); or on E-20 to E25, Brazil's normal ethanol gasoline blend;[42] on pure gasoline (though no longer available in Brazil since 1993,[43] it is still used in neighboring countries); or just on natural gas. The Siena Tetrafuel was engineered to switch from any gasoline-ethanol blend to CNG automatically, depending on the power required by road conditions.[44] Other existing option is to retrofit an ethanol flexible-fuel vehicle to add a natural gas tank and the corresponding injection system. This option is popular among taxicab owners in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, allowing users to choose among three fuels (E25, E100 and CNG) according to current market prices at the pump. Vehicles with this adaptation are known in Brazil as "tri-fuel" cars.[45]
[edit] History
The first commercial flexible fuel vehicle was the Ford Model T, produced from 1908 through 1927. It was fitted with a carburetor with adjustable jetting, allowing use of gasoline or ethanol, or a combination of both.[46][47][48] Other car manufactures also provided engines for ethanol fuel use.[12] Henry Ford continued to advocate for ethanol as fuel even during the prohibition. However, cheaper oil caused gasoline to prevail, until the 1973 oil crisis resulted in gasoline shortages and awareness on the dangers of oil dependence. This crisis opened a new opportunity for ethanol and other alternative fuels, such as methanol, gaseous fuels such as CNG and LPG, and also hydrogen.[7][12] Ethanol, methanol and natural gas CNG were the three alternative fuels that received more attention for research and development, and government support.
Since 1975, and as a response to the shock caused by the first oil crisis, the Brazilian government implemented the National Alcohol Program -Pró-Álcool- (Portuguese: Programa Nacional do Álcool), a nationwide program financed by the government to phase out automotive fuels derived from fossil fuels in favor of ethanol made from sugar cane.[49][50] It began with a low blend of anhydrous alcohol with regular gasoline in 1976,[51] and since July 2007 the mandatory blend is 25% of alcohol or gasohol E25.[42] In 1979, and as a response to the second oil crisis, the first vehicle capable of running with pure hydrous ethanol (E100) was launched to the market, the Fiat 147,[50][52] after testing with several prototypes developed by Fiat, Volkswagen, GM and Ford.[49] The Brazilian government provided three important initial drivers for the ethanol industry: guaranteed purchases by the state-owned oil company Petrobras, low-interest loans for agro-industrial ethanol firms, and fixed gasoline and ethanol prices. After reaching more than 4 million cars and light trucks running on pure ethanol by the late 1980s,[53] the use of E100-only vehicles sharply declined after increases in sugar prices produced shortages of ethanol fuel.
After extensive research that began in the 90s, a second push took place in March 2003, when the Brazilian subsidiary of Volkswagen launched to the market the first full flexible-fuel car, the Gol 1.6 Total Flex.[54][55][56] Several months later was followed by other Brazilian automakers, and by 2008 General Motors, Fiat, Ford, Peugeot, Renault, Volkswagen, Honda, Mitsubishi, Toyota and Citröen were producing popular models of flex cars and light trucks.[4][57] The adoption of ethanol flex fuel vehicles was so successful, that production of flex cars went from almost 40 thousand in 2003 to 1.7 million in 2007.[53] This rapid adoption of the flex technology was facilitated by the fuel distribution infrastructure already in place, as around 27,000 filling stations countrywide were available by 1997 with at least one ethanol pump, a heritage of the Pró-Álcool program.[58]
In the United States, initial support to develop alternative fuels by the government was also a response to the first oil crisis, and some time later, as a goal to improve air quality. Also, liquid fuels were preferred over gaseous fuels not only because they have a better volumetric energy density but also because they were the most compatible fuels with existing distribution systems and engines, thus avoiding a big departure from the existing technologies and taking advantage of the vehicle and the refueling infrastructure.[7] California led the search of sustainable alternatives with interest focused in methanol. Ford Motor Company and other automakers responded to California's request for vehicles that run on methanol. In 1981, Ford delivered 40 dedicated methanol fuel (M100) Escorts to Los Angeles County, but only four refueling stations were installed.[7] The biggest challenge in the development of alcohol vehicle technology was getting all of the fuel system materials compatible with the higher chemical reactivity of the fuel. Methanol was even more of a challenge than ethanol but, fortunately, much of the early experience gained with ethanol vehicle production in Brazil was transferable to methanol. The success of this small experimental fleet of M100s led California to request more of these vehicles, mainly for government fleets. In 1983, Ford built 582 M100 vehicles; 501 went to California, and the remaining to New Zealand, Sweden, Norway, United Kingdom, and Canada.[7]
As an answer to the lack of refueling infrastructure, Ford began development of a flexible-fuel vehicle in 1982, and between 1985 and 1992, 705 experimental FFVs were built and delivered to California and Canada, including the 1.6L Ford Escort, the 3.0L Taurus, and the 5.0L LTD Crown Victoria. These vehicles could operate on either gasoline or methanol with only one fuel system. Legislation was passed to encourage the US auto industry to begin production, which started in 1993 for the M85 FFVs at Ford. In 1996, a new FFV Ford Taurus was developed, with models fully capable of running on either methanol or ethanol blended with gasoline.[7][59] This ethanol version of the Taurus became the first commercial production of an E85 FFV.[60] The momentum of the FFV production programs at the American car companies continued, although by the end of the 1990s, the emphasis shifted to the FFV E85 version, as it is today.[7] Ethanol was preferred over methanol because there is a large support from the farming community, and thanks to the government's incentive programs and corn-based ethanol subsidies.[61] Sweden also tested both the M85 and the E85 flexifuel vehicles, but due to agriculture policy, in the end emphasis was given to the ethanol flexifuel vehicles.[62] Support for ethanol also comes from the fact that it is a biomass fuel, which addresses climate change concerns and greenhouse gas emissions, though these benefits are now highly debated depending on the feedstock used for ethanol production.[12][63][64][65]
The demand for ethanol fuel produced from field corn in the United States was stimulated by the discovery in the late 90s that methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE), an oxygenate additive in gasoline, was contaminating groundwater.[12][66] Due to the risks of widespread and costly litigation, and because MTBE use in gasoline was banned in almost 20 states by 2006, the substitution of MTBE opened a new market for ethanol fuel.[12] This demand shift for ethanol as an oxygenate additive took place at a time when oil prices were already significantly rising. By 2006, about 50 percent of the gasoline used in the U.S. contains ethanol at different proportions, and ethanol production grew so fast that the US became the world's first ethanol producer, overtaking Brazil in 2005.[67][68] This shift also contributed to a sharp increase in the production and sale of E85 flex vehicles since 2002.[2]
[edit] Flexible-fuel vehicles by country
[edit] Brazil
- See also: Ethanol fuel in Brazil
After the 1973 oil crisis, the Brazilian government made mandatory the use of ethanol blends with gasoline,[51] and 100% ethanol powered cars (E100 only) were launched to the market in 1979, after testing with several prototypes developed by four carmakers.[49] Brazilian carmakers modified gasoline engines to support ethanol characteristics and changes included compression ratio, amount of fuel injected, replacement of materials that would get corroded by the contact with ethanol, use of colder spark plugs suitable for dissipating heat due to higher flame temperatures, and an auxiliary cold-start system that injects gasoline from a small tank in the engine compartment to help starting when cold. Flexible-fuel technology started being developed only by the end of the 1990s by Brazilian engineers. The Brazilian flexible fuel car is built with an ethanol-ready engine and one fuel tank for both fuels. The small gasoline reservoir for starting the engine with pure ethanol in cold weather, used in earlier ethanol-only vehicles, was kept in the first generation of Brazilian flexible-fuel cars, mainly for users of the central and southern regions, where winter temperatures normally drop below 15 °C (59 °F).[19] An improved flex motor generation that will be launched in 2009 will eliminate the need for this secondary gas reservoir tank.[20][21]
A key innovation in the Brazilian flex technology was avoiding the need for an additional dedicated sensor to monitor the ethanol-gasoline mix, which made the first American M85 flex fuel vehicles too expensive.[70] This was accomplished through the lambda probe, used to measure the quality of combustion in conventional engines, is also required to tell the engine control unit (ECU) which blend of gasoline and alcohol is being burned. This task is accomplished automatically through software developed by Brazilian engineers, called "Software Fuel Sensor" (SFS), fed with data from the standard sensors already built-in the vehicle. The technology was developed by the Brazilian subsidiary of Bosch in 1994, but was further improved and commercially implemented in 2003 by the Italian subsidiary of Magneti Marelli, located in Hortolândia, São Paulo. A similar fuel injection technology was developed by the Brazilian subsidiary of Delphi Automotive Systems, and it is called "Multifuel", based on research conducted at its facility in Piracicaba, São Paulo.[70] This technology allows the controller to regulate the amount of fuel injected and spark time, as fuel flow needs to be decreased and also self-combustion needs to be avoided when gasoline is used because ethanol engines have compression ratio around 12:1, too high for gasoline.
| Year | Flex Autos Produced |
Flex Light trucks Produced |
Total Light Vehicles** Produced (including exports) |
Flex vehicles as % Total light vehicles** |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2003 | 39,853 | 9,411 | 1,721,841 | 2.9 | |
| 2004 | 282,706 | 49,801 | 2,181,131 | 15.2 | |
| 2005 | 776,164 | 81,735 | 2,377,453 | 36.1 | |
| 2006 | 1,249,062 | 142,574 | 2,471,224 | 56.3 | |
| 2007 | 1,719,667 | 217,186 | 2,801,011 | 69.1 | |
| Aug 2008* | 1,458,128* | 181,872* | 2,178,618* | 75.3* | |
| Total 2003-08* | 5,525,580* | 682,579* | 13,731,278* | 45.2* | |
| Note: * Until August 2008.[4] Source: ANFAVEA.[53] ** Total light vehicles includes autos and light trucks fueled with gasoline, pure ethanol, flex, and diesel. |
|||||
Brazilian flex cars are capable of running on just hydrated ethanol (E100), or just on a blend of gasoline with 20 to 25% anhydrous ethanol, or on any arbitrary combination of both fuels.[12] Pure gasoline is no longer sold in the country because these high ethanol blends are mandatory since 1993.[42][43] Therefore, all Brazilian automakers have optimized flex vehicles to run with gasoline blends from E20 to E25, and with a few exceptions, these FFVs are unable to run smoothly with pure gasoline which causes engine knocking, as vehicles traveling to neighboring South American countries have demonstrated.[71] Only two models are specifically built with a flex-fuel engine optimized to operate also with pure gasoline (E0), the Renault Clio Hi-Flex[71][72] and the Fiat Siena Tetrafuel.[73][74]
The flexibility of Brazilian FFVs empowers the consumers to choose the fuel depending on current market prices. As ethanol fuel economy is lower than gasoline because of ethanol's energy content is close to 34% less per unit volume than gasoline,[75][76][77] flex cars running on ethanol get a lower mileage than when running on pure gasoline. However, this effect is partially offset by the usually lower price per liter of ethanol fuel. As a rule of thumb, Brazilian consumers are frequently advised by the media to use more alcohol than gasoline in their mix only when ethanol prices are 30% lower or more than gasoline, as ethanol price fluctuates heavily depending on the result of seasonal sugar cane harvests.[78][79]
In March 2003 Volkswagen do Brasil launched in the market the Gol 1.6 Total Flex, the first commercial flexible fuel vehicle capable of running on any blend of gasoline and ethanol.[54][55][56] GM do Brasil followed two months later with the Chevrolet Corsa 1.8 Flexpower, using an engine developed by a joint-venture with Fiat called PowerTrain. By 2008, popular manufacturers that build flexible fuel vehicles are GM (Chevrolet), Fiat, Ford, Peugeot, Renault , Volkswagen, Honda, Mitsubishi, Toyota and Citröen.[4] Flexible fuel cars were 22% of the new car sales in 2004, 73% in 2005,[57] and reached 87.6% in July 2008.[80] As of August 2008, the fleet of "flex" automobiles and light commercial vehicles had reached 6.2 million vehicles,[3][4] representing 12% of Brazil's motor vehicle fleet and almost 19% of all registered light vehicles.[81]
The rapid success of flex vehicles was made possible by the existence of 33,000 filling stations with at least one ethanol pump available by 2006, a heritage of the early Pró-Álcool ethanol program.[82][83] These facts, together with the mandatory use of E25 blend of gasoline throughout the country,[42] allowed Brazil in 2008 to achieve more than 50% of fuel consumption in the gasoline market from sugar cane-based ethanol.[84][85][86]
[edit] Latest developments
The latest innovation within the Brazilian flexible-fuel technology, is the development of flex-fuel motorcycles. In 2007 Magneti Marelli presented the first motorcycle with flex technology, adapted on a Kasinski Seta 125, and based on the Software Fuel Sensor (SFS) the firm developed for flex-fuel cars in Brazil. Delphi Automotive Systems also presented in 2007 its Multifuel injection technology for motorcycles.[87] Besides the flexibility in the choice of fuels, a main objective of the fuel-flex motorcycles is to reduce CO2 emissions by 20 percent, and savings in fuel consumption in the order of 5% to 10% are expected.[87] These flex motorcycles will be available in the market by 2009, but AME Amazonas Motocicletas announced that sales of its motorcycle AME GA (G stands for gasoline and A for alcohol) will begin in December 2008. This model is based on the fuel injection technology developed by Delphi.[88]
The Brazilian subsidiaries of Magneti Marelli, Delphi and Bosch have announced the introduction in 2009 of a new flex engine generation that will eliminate the need for the secondary gasoline tank by warming the ethanol fuel during starting,[20] and allowing flex vehicles to do a normal cold start at temperatures as low as minus 5 °C (23 °F),[89] the lowest temperature expected anywhere in the Brazilian territory.[90] Another improvement is the reduction of fuel consumption and tailpipe emissions, between 10% to 15% as compared to flex motors sold in 2008.[21]
Brazilian flex engines are being designed with higher compression ratios, taking advantage of the higher ethanol blends and maximizing the benefits of the higher oxygen content of ethanol, resulting in lower emissions and improving fuel efficiency.[91] The following table shows the evolution and improvement of the different generations of flex engines developed in Brazil.
| Comparison of performance of several generations of Brazilian flex-fuel engines (Percentages show change in performance as compared with using gasoline) |
|||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Year | Engine compression ratio |
Engine power |
Engine torque |
Fuel efficiency improvement |
Gasoline injection cold start system |
| 2003 | 9.0:1 to 10.5:1 | +3% | +2% | -25 to -35% | Yes |
| 2006 | 11.0:1 to 12.5:1 | +7% | +5% | -25 to -30% | Yes |
| 2008 | 12.0:1 to 13.5:1 | +9% | +7% | -20 to -25% | No |
| Source: Joseph (2007) in The Royal Society (2008), "Sustainable biofuels: prospects and challenges".[91] | |||||
[edit] Europe
[edit] Sweden
- See also: Ethanol fuel in Sweden
Flexible-fuel vehicles were introduced in Sweden as a demonstration test in 1994, when three Ford Taurus were imported to show the technology existed. Because of the existing interest, a project was started in 1995 with 50 Ford Taurus E85 flexifuel in different parts of Sweden: Umea, Örnsköldsvik, Härnösand, Stockholm, Karlstad, Linköping, and Växjö. From 1997 to 1998 an additional 300 Taurus were imported, and the number of E85 fueling grew to 40.[92] Then in 1998 the city of Stockholm placed an order for 2,000 of FFVs for any car manufacturer willing to produce them. The objective was to jump-start the FFV industry in Sweden. The two domestic car makers Volvo Group and Saab AB refused to participate arguing there were not in place any ethanol filling stations. However, Ford Motor Company took the offer and began importing the flexifuel version of its Focus model, delivering the first cars in 2001, and selling more than 15,000 FFV Focus by 2005, then representing an 80% market share of the flexifuel market.[93]
In 2005 both Volvo and Saab introduced to the Sweden market their flexifuel models. Saab began selling its 9-5 2.0 Biopower, joined in 2006 by its 9-5 2.3 Biopower. Volvo introduced its S40 and V50 with flexible-fuel engines, joined in late 2006 by the new C30. All Volvo models were initially restricted to the Sweden market, until 2007, when these three models were launched in eight new European markets.[94] In 2007, Saab also started selling a BioPower version of its popular Saab 9-3 line. In 2008 the Saab-derived Cadillac BLS was introduced with E85 compatible engines, and Volvo launched the V70 with a 2.5-litre turbocharged Flexifuel engine.[95]
All flexible-fuel vehicles in Sweden use an E75 winter blend instead of E85 to avoid engine starting problems during cold weather.[17] This blend was introduced since the winter 2006-07 and E75 is used from November until March.[18] For temperature below minus 15 °C (5 °F) E85 flex vehicles require an engine block heater.[18] The use of this device is also recommended for gasoline vehicles when temperatures drop below minus 23 °C (minus 10 °F).[12] Another option when extreme cold weather is expected is to add more pure gasoline in the tank, thus reducing the ethanol content below the E70 winter blend, or simply not to use E85 during extreme low temperature spells.[12][18]
Sweden has achieved the largest E85 flexible-fuel vehicle fleet in Europe, with a sharp growth from 717 vehicles in 2001 to 126,505 by September 2008.[6][93] The recent and accelerated growth of the Swedish fleet of E85 flexifuel vehicles, as they are popularly known, is the result of the National Climate Policy in Global Cooperation Bill passed in 2005, which not only ratified the Kyoto Protocol but also sought to meet the 2003 EU Biofuels Directive regarding targets for use of biofuels, and also let to the 2006 government's commitment to eliminate oil imports by 2020.[93][96]
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In order to achieve these goals several government incentives were implemented. Ethanol, as the other biofuels, was exempted of both, the CO2 and energy taxes until 2009, resulting in a 30% price reduction at the pump of E85 fuel over gasoline. Furthermore, other demand side incentives for flexifuel vehicle owners include a USD 1,800 bonus to buyers of FFVs, exemption from the Stockholm congestion tax, up to 20% discount on auto insurance, free parking spaces in most of the largest cities, owner annual registration taxes, and a 20% tax reduction for flexifuel company cars. Also, a part of the program, the Swedish Government ruled that 25% of their vehicle purchases (excluding police, fire and ambulance vehicles) must be alternative fuel vehicles.[93][97][96] By the first months of 2008, this package of incentives resulted in sales of flexible-fuel cars representing 25% of new car sales.[93]
On the supply side, since 2005 the gasoline fuelling stations selling more than 3 million liters of fuel a year are required to sell at least one type of biofuel, resulting in more than 1,200 gas stations selling E85 by August 2008.[93][96] Despite all the sharp growth of E85 flexifuel cars, by 2007 they represented just 2% of the 4 million Swedish vehicle fleet.[98] In addition, this law also mandated all new filling stations to offer alternative fuels, and stations with an annual volume of more than 1 million liters are required to have an alternative fuel pump by December 2009. Therefore, the number of E85 pumps is expected to reach by 2009 nearly 60% of Sweden’s 4,000 filling stations.[97]
The Swedish-made Koenigsegg CCXR, a limited edition and version of the CCX, is currently the fastest and most powerful flexible fuel vehicle with its twin-supercharged V8 producing 1018 hp when running on biofuel, as compared to 806 hp on 91 octane US unleaded gasoline.[99][100]
[edit] Other European countries
Bioethanol E85 stations European Union[101] |
|||
|---|---|---|---|
| Country | Number Stations |
As of (date) |
Stat/106 persons |
 Sweden[93] |
1,200 | 2008-07 | 131.26 |
 Germany[102] |
219 | 2008-09 | 2.67 |
 France[103] |
211 | 2008-05 | 3.27 |
 Switzerland[104] |
40 | 2008-06 | 5.27 |
 Ireland[105][106] |
29 | 2008-08 | 5.84 |
 United Kingdom[107][108] |
21 | 2008 | 0.34 |
 Norway[108] |
11 | 2008 | 2.30 |
 Spain[108][109] |
8 | 2007-12 | 0.18 |
 Netherlands[108] |
5 | 2008 | 0.30 |
Flexifuel vehicles are sold in 18 European countries, including Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.[110][111] Ford, Volvo and Saab are the main automakers offering flexifuel autos in the region.[94][110][112][113]
[edit] France
Biofuel cars in general get strong tax incentives in France, including a 0 or 50% reduction on the tax on new vehicles, and a 50% reduction on CO2 tax for new cars. For company cars there is a corporate car tax free for 2 years and a recovery of 80% of the value added tax (VAT) on E85 vehicles.[108] Also, E85 fuel price is set significantly lower than diesel or gasoline, resulting in E85 at € 0.80, diesel at € 1.15, and gasoline at € 1.30 per liter, as of April 2007. By May 2008, France had 211 pumps selling E85,[103] even though the government made plans for the installation of up to 500 E85 pumps by year end 2007.[109] French automakers Renault and PSA (Citroen & Peugeot) announced they will start selling FFV cars beginning in the summer 2007.
[edit] Germany
Biofuel emphasis in Germany is on biodiesel,[96] and no specific incentives have been granted for E85 flex-fuel cars, however there is complete exemption of taxes on all biofuels while there is a normal tax of € 0.65 per liter of petroleum fuels.[96][108] The distribution of E85 began in 2005,[114] and with 219 stations as of September 2008, Germany ranks second after Sweden with the most E85 fueling stations in the EU.[102] As of January 2008 retail prices of E85 was € 0.95 per liter, and gasoline was priced at € 1.37 per liter (for gasoline RON 95), then providing enough margin to compensate for ethanol's lower fuel economy.[109] Ford has offered the Ford Focus since August 2005 in Germany. Ford is about to offer also the Mondeo and other models as FFV versions between 2008 and 2010. The Saab 9-5 and Saab 9-3 Biopower, the Peugeot 308 Bioflex, the Citroen C4 Bioflex, the Audi A5, two models of the Cadillac BLS, and five Volvo models are also available in the German market by 2008.[115]
[edit] Ireland
Ireland is the third best seller European market of E85 flex-fuel vehicles, after Sweden and France.[116] Bioethanol (E85) in Ireland is made from whey, a waste product of cheese manufacturing.[116] The Irish government established several incentives, including a 50% discount in vehicle registration taxes (VRT), which can account for more than one third of the retail price of a new car in Ireland (around € 6,500). The bioethanol element of the E85 fuel is excise-free for fuel companies, allowing retail prices to be low enough to offset the 25 per cent cut in fuel economy that E-85 cars offer, due to ethanol's lower energy content than gasoline. Also, the value added tax (VAT) on the fuel can also be claimed back.[108][116] E-85 fuel is available across the country in more than 20 of Maxol service stations.[105] In October 2005, the 1.8 Ford Focus FFV[117] became the first flexible-fuel vehicle to be commercially sold in Ireland. Later Ford launched the C-max and the Mondeo flexifuel models. Saab and Volvo also have E85 models available.[105]
[edit] United Kingdom
The UK government established several incentives for E85 flex-fuel vehicles. These include a fuel duty rebate on E85 fuel of 20 p per liter, until 2010; a £ 10 to 15 reduction in the vehicle excise duty (VED); and a 2% annual company car tax discount for flex-fuel cars.[108] Despite the small number of E85 pump stations available, limited to the Morrisons supermarket chain stations,[107][108] most automakers offer the same models in the UK that are available in the European market. In 2005 the Ford Focus Flexi-Fuel became the first flexible-fuel car sold in the UK, though E85 pumps opened until 2006.[118] Volvo now offers its flexifuel models S80, S40, C30, V50 and V70.[119] Other models available in the UK are the Ford C-Max Flexi-Fuel,[120] and the Saab models 9-5 and 9-3 Flex-Fuel Biopower, and the new Saab Aero X BioPower E100 bioethanol.[121]
[edit] United States
- See also: E85 in the United States and Ethanol fuel in the United States
| Year | Light-Duty E85 FFVs produced |
Light-Duty E85 FFVs increase** |
Total fleet E85 FFVs in use |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1998 | 261,165 | 171,422 | 171,422 |
| 1999 | 426,724 | 357,450 | 528,872 |
| 2000 | 600,832 | 528,315 | 1,057,187 |
| 2001 | 581,774 | 533,458 | 1,590,645 |
| 2002 | 834,976 | 793,575 | 2,384,220 |
| 2003 | 859,261 | 837,357 | 3,221,577 |
| 2004 | 674,678 | 670,794 | 3,892,371 |
| 2005 | 735,693 | 735,693 | 4,628,064 |
| 2006 | 866,194 | 866,194 | 5,494,258 |
| 2007 | 974,095 | 974,095 | 6,468,353 |
| Aug 2008* | 793,354* | 793,354* | 7,289,908 |
| Note: * Data until August 2008. ** Net increase is new FFVs manufactured discounted by the survival rate. Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory[2] |
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In 2007 there were over 6 million E85 flex fuel vehicles running on the US roads,[22][122] up from almost 5 million in 2005.[12] The E85 blend is used in gasoline engines modified to accept such higher concentrations of ethanol, and the fuel injection is regulated through a dedicated sensor, which automatically detects the amount of ethanol in the fuel, allowing to adjust both fuel injection and spark timing accordingly to the actual blend available in the vehicle's tank. The American E85 flex fuel vehicle was developed to run on any mixture of unleaded gasoline and ethanol, anywhere from 0% to 85% ethanol by volume. Both fuels are mixed in the same tank, and E85 is sold already blended. In order to reduce ethanol evaporative emissions and to avoid problems starting the engine during cold weather, the maximum blend of ethanol was set to 85%.[13] There is also a seasonal reduction of the ethanol content to E70 (called winter E85 blend) in very cold regions,[15] where temperatures fall below 0 °C (32 °F) during the winter.[13][14] In Wyoming for example, E70 is sold as E85 from October to May.[15]
E85 flex-fuel vehicles are becoming increasingly common in the Midwest, where corn is a major crop and is the primary feedstock for ethanol fuel production. Also the US government has been using flex-fuel vehicles for many years. By 2008 almost any type of automobile and light duty vehicles is available in the market with the flex-fuel option, including sedans, vans, SUVs and pick-up trucks.
A 2005 survey found that 68% of American flex-fuel car owners were not aware they owned an E85 flex.[12][22] This is due to the fact that the exterior of flex and non-flex vehicles look exactly the same; there is no sale price difference between them; the lack of consumer's awareness about E85s; and also the decision of American automakers of not putting any kind of exterior labeling, so buyers can be aware they are getting an E85 vehicle.[12][83] In contrast, all Brazilian automakers clearly mark FFVs with badging or a high quality sticker in the exterior body, with a logo with some variant of the word Flex. Since 2006 many new FFV models in the US feature a bright yellow gas cap to remind drivers of the E85 capabilities,[26][27][123][124] and GM is also using badging with the text "Flexfuel/E85 Ethanol" to clearly mark the car as an E85 FFV.[28][29]
Some critics have argued, including U.S. Representative Jay Inslee, that American automakers have been producing E85 flex models motivated by a loophole in the CAFE (Corporate Average Fuel Economy) requirements, that allows for a fuel economy credit for every flex-fuel vehicle sold, whether or not in practice these vehicles are fueled with E85.[83][125] This loophole might allow the car industry to meet the CAFE targets in fuel economy just by spending between USD 100 to USD 200 that it cost to turn a conventional vehicle into a flex-fuel, without investing in new technology to improve fuel economy, and saving them the potential fines for not achieving that standard in a given model year.[126][125] In an example presented by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), the agency responsible for establishing the CAFE standards, the special treatment provided for alternative fuel vehicles, "turns a dual fuel vehicle that averages 25 mpg on gasoline or diesel... to attain the 40 mpg value for CAFE purposes."[127] The current CAFE standards are 27.5 mpg for automobiles and 22.2 mpg for light-duty trucks."[128] In late 2007, CAFE standards received their first overhaul in more than 30 years through the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, and now are set to rise to 35 mpg by the year 2020.
A major restriction hampering sales of E85 flex vehicles or fuelling with E85, is the limited infrastructure available to sell E85 to the public, as by October 2008 there were only 1,802 gasoline filling stations selling E85 to the public in the entire US,[129] with a great concentration of E85 stations in the Corn Belt states, lead by Minnesota with 357 stations, the most that any other state, followed by Illinois with 189, Wisconsin with 118, and Missouri with 112.[129][130] Only seven states do not have E85 available to the public, Alaska, Hawaii, Maine, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Rhode Island, and Vermont.[129] The main constraint for a more rapid expansion of E85 availability is that it requires dedicated storage tanks at filling stations,[12] at an estimated cost of USD 60,000 for each dedicated ethanol tank.[122] The Energy Policy Act of 2005, signed into law by President Bush on 8 August 2005, in its Section 701 requires the federal government's fleet of vehicles capable of operating on alternative fuels to be operated on these fuels exclusively,[131] unless a waiver is granted if the alternative fuel is not reasonably available; or if the cost of the fuel required is unreasonably more expensive compared to gasoline. The Federal vehicle fleet consists of 650,000 vehicles, of which 121,778 are alternative fuel vehicles, mostly E85s.[132]
Because ethanol contains close to 34% less energy per unit volume than gasoline, E85 FFVs have a lower mileage per gallon than gasoline.[76][77] However, this lower energy content does not translate directly into a 34% reduction in miles per U.S. gallon, because there are many other variables that affect the performance of a particular fuel in a particular engine, though for E85 the effect becomes significant. E85 will produce lower mileage than gasoline, and actual performance may vary depending on the vehicle. Based on EPA tests for all 2006 E85 models, the average fuel economy for E85 vehicles was 25.56% lower than unleaded gasoline.[12] The EPA-rated mileage of current American flex-fuel vehicles[133] could be considered when making price comparisons, though E85 has octane rating of about 104 and could be used as a substitute for premium gasoline. Regional retail E85 prices vary widely across the US, with more favorable prices in the Midwest region, where most corn is grown and ethanol produced. In August 2008 the US average spread between the price of E85 and gasoline was 16.9%, while in Indiana was 35%, 30% in Minnesota and Wisconsin, 19% in Maryland, 12 to 15% in California, and just 3% in Utah.[134] Depending of the vehicle capabilities, the break even price of E85 has to be between 25 to 30% lower than gasoline.[12] (See price comparisons for most states at e85prices.com)
[edit] Latest developments
The BioFuels Security Act is a proposed legislative Act of Congress (bill) intended to phase out current single-fueled vehicles (fossil fuel vehicles) in favor of flexible-fuel vehicles. Under this proposal, contemporary single-fuel vehicles would cease production in 2016 [135]. Also the E85 and Biodiesel Access Act[136] introduced by Congresswoman Stephanie Herseth Sandlin (D-SD) and Congressman John Shimkus (R-IL), be included in any energy legislation that may be approved during this session of Congress. Currently the IRS limits the tax credit only to the amount a duel fuel dispenser exceeds the cost of a conventional dispenser. The E85 and Biodiesel Access Act would increase the credit from 30 percent of the cost of clean fueling property to 50 percent and increase the maximum credit to $100,000. This law would also extend the existing credit which is scheduled to expire at the end of 2009.[137] Also several members of the United States Congress have recently called for mandatory production of flexible fuel vehicles.[137] Regarding energy policy, President-elect Barack Obama pledged during his electoral campaign to significantly reduce oil consumption, with measures that among others include mandating all new vehicles to have FFV capability by the end of 2013.[138]
Chrysler, General Motors, and Ford have each pledged to manufacture 50 percent of their entire vehicle line as flexible fuel in model year 2012, if enough fueling infrastructure develops.[26][139][140] The new plug-in series-hybrid vehicle Chevrolet Volt by General Motors, expected to be launched in the North American market in 2010,[141] will take advantage of the E-Flex technology[142] used today in GM's E-85 flex cars as one of the options that will be developed to recharge the batteries. [143]